Document 1: The Constitution of Medina (Ṣaḥīfat al-Madīnah)
Doc 1:1a: Preamble & Authorship
هَذَا كِتَابٌ
This is a writing (hādhā kitābun, হা-যা কিতাবুন; h-dh-ā / হ-য-আ – this // hādhā // [Cognate: none]; k-t-b / ক-ত-ব – to write, decree // kitāb // Cognate: Hebrew: kātav "he wrote")
Doc 1:1b: The Source Authority
مِنْ مُحَمَّدٍ النَّبِيِّ
from Muhammad the Prophet (min Muḥammadin an-nabiyyi, মিন মুহাম্মাদিন্ আন্-নাবিয়্যি; ḥ-m-d / হ-ম-দ – to praise // Muḥammad // Cognate: Hebrew: ḥamad "desire/delight"; n-b-y / ন-ব-য় – to inform, prophecy // nabī // Cognate: Hebrew: nāvī "prophet")
Doc 1:1c: The Parties Involved
بَيْنَ الْمُؤْمِنِينَ وَالْمُسْلِمِينَ
between the Believers and the Muslims (bayna l-muʾminīna wa-l-muslimīna, বায়না ল্-মু'মিনিনা ওয়া ল্-মুসলিমীন; b-y-n / ব-য়-ন – between, separate // bayna // Cognate: Hebrew: bēn "between"; '-m-n / অ-ম-ন – safety, trust, belief // muʾminīn // Cognate: Hebrew: 'āmēn "verily/faith"; s-l-m / স-ল-ম – wholeness, submission // muslimīn // Cognate: Hebrew: shālōm "peace/wholeness")
Doc 1:1d: Origins of the Parties
مِنْ قُرَيْشٍ وَأَهْلِ يَثْرِبَ
from Quraysh and the people of Yathrib (min qurayshin wa ahli yathriba, মিন কুরাইশিন ওয়া আহলি ইয়াছরিবা; q-r-š / ক-র-শ – to gather, gnash, shark // Quraysh // [Cognate: none]; '-h-l / অ-হ-ল – family, people // ahl // Cognate: Hebrew: 'ōhel "tent"; th-r-b / ছ-র-ব – to blame, damage // Yathrib // [Old name of Medina])
Doc 1:1e: The Alliance Clause
وَمَنْ تَبِعَهُمْ فَلَحِقَ بِهِمْ
and whoever followed them and joined them (wa-man tabiʿahum fa-laḥiqa bihim, ওয়া মান তাবি'আহুম ফা-লাহিক্বা বিহিম; t-b-c / ত-ব-য় – to follow // tabic a // [Cognate: none]; l-ḥ-q / ল-হ-ক – to catch up, join // laḥiqa // [Cognate: none])
Doc 1:1f: The Military Pact
وَجَاهَدَ مَعَهُمْ
and struggled alongside them. (wa jāhada maʿahum, ওয়া জাহাদা মা'আহুম; j-h-d / জ-হ-দ – to strive, struggle // jāhada // [Cognate: none])
Doc 1:2: The Unity Clause
إِنَّهُمْ أُمَّةٌ وَاحِدَةٌ
Indeed, they are one community (innahum ummatun wāḥidatun, ইন্নাহুম উম্মাতুন ওয়াহিদাতুন; '-m-m / অ-ম-ম – to head, mother, source // ummah // Cognate: Hebrew: 'ummāh "nation"; w-ḥ-d / ও-হ-দ – one, alone // wāḥidah // Cognate: Hebrew: eḥād "one")
Doc 1:3: Distinct Identity
مِنْ دُونِ النَّاسِ
exclusive of (other) people. (min dūni n-nāsi, মিন দূনি ন্-নাস; d-w-n / দ-ও-ন – low, less, excluding // dūn // [Cognate: none]; '-n-s / অ-ন-স – to be companionable, human // nās // Cognate: Hebrew: enōsh "mankind")
Doc 1:4: Mutual Protection
وَإِنَّ ذِمَّةَ اللهِ وَاحِدَةٌ
And indeed the protection of Allah is one, (wa inna dhimmata Allāhi wāḥidatun, ওয়া ইন্না যিম্মাতা ল্লাহি ওয়াহিদাতুন; dh-m-m / য-ম-ম – to blame [protection implies fear of blame if broken] // dhimmah // [Cognate: none])
Doc 1:5: Universal Agency
يُجِيرُ عَلَيْهِمْ أَدْنَاهُمْ
the least of them acts on behalf of them. (yujīru ʿalayhim adnāhum, য়ুজীরু 'আলাইহিম আদনাহুম; j-w-r / জ-ও-র – to deviate, or to protect (neighbor) // yujīru // Cognate: Hebrew: gūr "sojourn"; d-n-w / দ-ন-ও – to be low, near // adnā // [Cognate: none])
Linguistic Gloss (Constitution of Medina):
Writing/Decree [kitāb: from k-t-b, semantic shift writing→decree, cf. Hebrew kātav], Prophet [nabī: from n-b-y "to announce," cf. Hebrew nāvi], Community [ummah: matriarchal root '-m-m "mother/source"→"nation," cf. Hebrew ummāh], Yathrib [Pre-Islamic name, root th-r-b implies "corruption/blame," later changed to Ṭaybah by the Prophet ﷺ].
বেঙ্গলি স্ক্রিপ্ট (মদীনার সনদ):
১. বিসমিল্লাহির রাহমানির রাহীম। হা-যা কিতাবুন মিন মুহাম্মাদিন্ আন্-নাবিয়্যি (রাসূলিল্লাহি) বায়না ল্-মু'মিনিনা ওয়া ল্-মুসলিমীন।
(হ-য-আ/ ইহা; ক-ত-ব/ লিখিত দলিল; ন-ব-য়/ নবী; // cf. হিব্রু 'নাভি')।
২. মিন কুরাইশিন ওয়া আহলি ইয়াছরিবা ওয়া মান তাবি'আহুম ফা-লাহিক্বা বিহিম ওয়া জাহাদা মা'আহুম।
(ক-র-শ/ কুরাইশ গোত্র; ছ-র-ব/ ইয়াছরিব [মদীনা]; ল-হ-ক/ মিলিত হওয়া; জ-হ-দ/ সংগ্রাম করা)।
৩. ইন্নাহুম উম্মাতুন ওয়াহিদাতুন মিন দূনি ন্-নাস।
(অ-ম-ম/ জাতি/উম্মাহ; ও-হ-দ/ এক; অ-ন-স/ মানুষ; // cf. হিব্রু 'উম্মাহ')।
৪. ওয়া ইন্না যিম্মাতা ল্লাহি ওয়াহিদাতুন য়ুজীরু 'আলাইহিম আদনাহুম।
(য-ম-ম/ জিম্মা/সুরক্ষা; জ-ও-র/ আশ্রয় দেয়া; দ-ন-ও/ সর্বনিম্ন ব্যক্তি)।
৫. ওয়া ইন্না ইয়াহুদা বানী 'আওফিন উম্মাতুন মা'আ ল্-মু'মিনীন।
(ব-ন-য়/ সন্তান/বংশ; '-ও-ফ/ 'আওফ গোত্র; ম-ঈ/ সাথে)।
৬. লিল-ইয়াহুদি দীনুহুম ওয়া লিল-মুসলিমিনা দীনুহুম।
(দ-য়-ন/ ধর্ম/জীবনব্যবস্থা; // cf. হিব্রু 'দীন' "বিচার/আইন")।
Historical Context: The Constitution of Medina
Drafted shortly after the Hijrah (622 CE), this document is considered the first written constitution in history. It established the Ummah as a supra-tribal political entity, replacing traditional tribal kinship with a bond based on faith and mutual defense.
Significance: It integrated the Muhājirūn (Meccan emigrants), Anṣār (Medinan helpers), and Jewish tribes (like Banu Awf mentioned in the text) into a single federated state.
Key Concept: Dhimmah (Protection) — The clause "the least of them acts on behalf" democratized diplomatic protection; a pledge of safety given by a common Muslim was binding on the entire state.
Religious Freedom: The text explicitly grants the Jewish allies their religion ("li-l-yahūdi dīnuhum") and the Muslims theirs, establishing a pluralistic framework under common defense.
Document 2: The Treaty of Hudaibiyah (Ṣulḥ al-Ḥudaybiyah)
Doc 2:1: Pre-Islamic/Islamic Formula
بِاسْمِكَ اللَّهُمَّ
In Your Name, O Allah (bi-smika Allāhumma, বিসমিকা আল্লাহুম্মা; s-m-w / স-ম-ও – name, height // ism // Cognate: Hebrew: shēm "name"; '-l-h / অ-ল-হ – God // Allāhumma (Vocative suffix -mma) // Cognate: Hebrew: Elōhīm)
(Note: The Prophet ﷺ originally dictated "Bismillahir Rahmanir Rahim," but the Quraysh negotiator Suhayl bin Amr objected, insisting on the traditional Meccan formula "Bismika Allahumma.")
Doc 2:2: The Reconciliation
هَذَا مَا صَالَحَ عَلَيْهِ
This is what was agreed upon (hādhā mā ṣālaḥa ʿalayhi, হা-যা মা সালাহা 'আলাইহি; ṣ-l-ḥ / স-ল-হ – to be good, reconcile, peace // ṣālaḥa // [Cognate: none])
Doc 2:3: The Signatories
مُحَمَّدُ بْنُ عَبْدِ اللهِ
[by] Muhammad, son of Abdullah (Muḥammad bnu ʿAbdi Allāhi, মুহাম্মাদু বনু 'আবদি ল্লাহি; b-n-y / ব-ন-য় – son // ibn // Cognate: Hebrew: bēn "son"; '-b-d / অ-ব-দ – slave, servant // 'abd // Cognate: Hebrew: 'eved "servant")
(Note: Suhayl objected to "Rasulullah," so the Prophet ﷺ instructed Ali (RA) to write his name and lineage instead).
Doc 2:4: The Counterpart
سُهَيْلَ بْنَ عَمْرٍو
[and] Suhayl, son of Amr (Suhayla bna ʿAmrin, সুহাইলা বনা 'আমর্; s-h-l / স-হ-ল – to be easy, level // Suhayl // [Cognate: none]; '-m-r / অ-ম-র – life, age // 'Amr // [Cognate: none])
Doc 2:5: The Cessation of Hostilities
اصْطَلَحَا عَلَى وَضْعِ الْحَرْبِ
They agreed on laying down [weapons of] war (iṣṭalaḥā ʿalā waḍʿi l-ḥarbi, ইসতালাহা 'আলা ওয়াদ'ই ল্-হারব; w-ḍ-ʿ / ও-দ-য় – to place, put down // waḍʿ // [Cognate: none]; ḥ-r-b / হ-র-ব – war, destruction // ḥarb // Cognate: Hebrew: ḥerev "sword")
Doc 2:6: The Duration
عَشْرَ سِنِينَ
for ten years (ʿashra sinīna, 'আশরা সিনীন; ʿ-š-r / আ-শ-র – ten // ʿashra // Cognate: Hebrew: 'eser "ten"; s-n-w / স-ন-ও – year, change // sinīn // Cognate: Hebrew: shānāh "year")
Doc 2:7: The Condition of Security
يَأْمَنُ فِيهِنَّ النَّاسُ
during which the people will be secure (yaʾmanu fīhinna n-nāsu, ইয়া'মানু ফীহিন্না ন্-নাসু; '-m-n / অ-ম-ন – safety // yaʾmanu // Cognate: Hebrew: 'āmēn)
Doc 2:8: Restraint
وَيَكُفُّ بَعْضُهُمْ عَنْ بَعْضٍ
and they will withhold from [harming] one another. (wa yakuffu baʿḍuhum ʿan baʿḍin, ওয়া ইয়াকুফফু বা'দুহুম 'আন বা'দ্ব; k-f-f / ক-ফ-ফ – to palm, restrain, stop // yakuffu // Cognate: Hebrew: kaf "palm/hand"; b-ʿ-ḍ / ব-য়-দ – part, some // baʿḍ // [Cognate: none])
Linguistic Gloss (Treaty of Hudaibiyah):
Reconcile/Peace [ṣālaḥa: from ṣ-l-ḥ "to be whole/good," implies restoration of relations], Son [ibn: Semitic root b-n, cf. Hebrew bēn], War [ḥarb: root ḥ-r-b denotes destruction/plunder, cf. Hebrew ḥerev "sword"], Ten Years [ashra sinīn: standard Semitic counting, cf. Hebrew eser shanah], Withhold [yakuffu: from k-f-f "palm of hand," literally "to hold back the hand"].
বেঙ্গলি স্ক্রিপ্ট (হুদাইবিয়ার সন্ধি):
১. বিসমিকা আল্লাহুম্মা। হা-যা মা সালাহা 'আলাইহি মুহাম্মাদু বনু 'আবদি ল্লাহি সুহাইলা বনা 'আমর্।
(স-ম-ও/ নাম; স-ল-হ/ সন্ধি করা; ব-ন-য়/ পুত্র; 'অ-ব-দ/ দাস)।
২. ইসতালাহা 'আলা ওয়াদ'ই ল্-হারবি 'আনিন-নাসি 'আশরা সিনীন।
(ও-দ-য়/ নামিয়ে রাখা; হ-র-ব/ যুদ্ধ; আ-শ-র/ দশ; স-ন-ও/ বছর; // cf. হিব্রু 'হেরেভ' "তরবারি")।
৩. ইয়া'মানু ফীহিন্না ন্-নাসু ওয়া ইয়াকুফফু বা'দুহুম 'আন বা'দ্ব।
(অ-ম-ন/ নিরাপদ হওয়া; ক-ফ-ফ/ হাত গুটিয়ে রাখা/বিরত থাকা)।
৪. 'আলা আন্নাহু মান আতা মুহাম্মাদান মিন কুরাইশিন বিগাইরি ইজনি ওয়ালিয়্যিহি রাদ্দাহু 'আলাইহিম।
(আ-ত-য়/ আসা; অ-ল-য়/ অভিভাবক; র-দ-দ/ ফেরত দেয়া)।
৫. ওয়া মান জা'আ কুরাইশান মিম্মান মা'আ মুহাম্মাদিন লাম ইয়ারুদ্দুহু 'আলাইহি।
(জ-য়-আ/ আসা; ল-ম/ না [নাবোধক])।
৬. ওয়া ইন্না বাইনানা 'আইবাতান মাকফুফাতান ওয়া আন্নাহু লা ইসলালা ওয়া লা ইগলাল।
('অ-য়-ব/ গোপন থলি [এখানে বুক বা অন্তর]; ক-ফ-ফ/ আবদ্ধ; স-ল-ল/ গোপন চুরি [তরবারি বের করা]; গ-ল-ল/ বিশ্বাসঘাতকতা)।
Historical Context: The Treaty of Hudaibiyah
Signed in 6 AH (628 CE), this treaty was a diplomatic masterstroke despite appearing disadvantageous initially.
The "Bismika" Controversy: The text reflects the intense negotiation. The Prophet ﷺ conceded on formatting (removing "Ar-Rahman" and "Rasulullah") to secure the substance of peace.
Legal Impact: The "Extradition Clause" (Doc 2, Seg 4 in Arabic text) required Muslims fleeing Mecca to be returned, but not vice versa. This was abrogated later (specifically regarding women, per Sūrah Al-Mumtaḥinah 60:10).
Terminology: The phrase 'aybah makfūfah (literally "a tied-up bag") in segment 6 is a classical idiom meaning "hearts are sealed mutually from malice" or "hostilities are bagged up," indicating a sincere truce free from secret treachery (islāl) or betrayal (ighlāl).
Here is the linguistic analysis and historical contextualization for the major diplomatic letters.
Document 3: Letter to Heraclius (Emperor of Byzantium)
Doc 3:1: The Sender and Recipient
مِنْ مُحَمَّدٍ عَبْدِ اللهِ وَرَسُولِهِ
From Muhammad, slave of Allah and His Messenger (min Muḥammadin ʿabdi Allāhi wa rasūlihi, মিন মুহাম্মাদিন্ 'আবদি ল্লাহি ওয়া রাসূলিহি; r-s-l / র-স-ল – to send // rasūl // [Cognate: none, semantic eq. Hebrew shaliach])
إِلَى هِرَقْلَ عَظِيمِ الرُّومِ
to Heraclius, the Great of Rome (ilā Hiraqla ʿaẓīmi r-Rūm, ইলা হিরাক্বলা 'আজীমি র-রূম; ʿ-ẓ-m / আ-জ-ম – bone, strength, greatness // ʿaẓīm // Cognate: Hebrew: ʿeṣem "bone/essence"; r-w-m / র-ও-ম – Rome/Byzantium // Rūm // [Loanword])
Doc 3:2: The Conditional Salutation
سَلَامٌ عَلَى مَنِ اتَّبَعَ الْهُدَى
Peace be upon whoever followed the guidance (salāmun ʿalā mani ttabaʿa l-hudā, সালামুন 'আলা মানি ত্তাবা'আ ল্-হুদা; h-d-y / হ-দ-য় – to guide // hudā // [Cognate: none])
Doc 3:3: The Paronomasia (Pun)
أَسْلِمْ تَسْلَمْ
Submit [to Islam], you will be safe (aslim taslam, আসলিম তাসলাম; s-l-m / স-ল-ম – peace, submission // aslim [Imperative IV], taslam [Jussive] // Cognate: Hebrew: shālēm "complete")
Doc 3:4: The Warning
فَإِنْ تَوَلَّيْتَ فَإِنَّ عَلَيْكَ إِثْمَ الْأَرِيسِيِّينَ
But if you turn away, then upon you is the sin of the peasants [or Arians]. (fa-in tawallayta fa-inna ʿalayka ithma l-arīsiyyīn, ফা-ইন তাওয়াল্লাইতা ফা-ইন্না 'আলাইকা ইছমা ল্-আরীসিয়্যীন; '-th-m / অ-ছ-ম – sin // ithm // Cognate: Hebrew: āshām "guilt/reparation"; '-r-s / অ-র-স – to till soil [loanword] // arīsiyyīn // Cognate: Latin: aricius "ploughman")
Linguistic Gloss (Letter to Heraclius):
Great of Rome [ʿaẓīm: diplomatic protocol acknowledging status without validating religious authority], Submit/Safe [aslim taslam: rhetorical device jinās (paronomasia), linking submission to God with worldly and soteriological safety], Arīsiyyīn [Scholarly consensus divides on this term: 1. From Greek arousia (peasants/cultivators), implying Heraclius bears the sin of his subjects. 2. A reference to the Arians (followers of Arius), early Unitarian Christians whose theology aligned closer to Islamic monotheism, implying Heraclius was suppressing truth].
বেঙ্গলি স্ক্রিপ্ট (হিরাক্লিয়াসের প্রতি পত্র):
১. বিসমিল্লাহির রাহমানির রাহীম। মিন মুহাম্মাদিন্ 'আবদি ল্লাহি ওয়া রাসূলিহি ইলা হিরাক্বলা 'আজীমি র-রূম।
(র-স-ল/ রাসূল/বার্তাবাহক; আ-জ-ম/ মহান নেতা; র-ও-ম/ রোমান সাম্রাজ্য)।
২. সালামুন 'আলা মানি ত্তাবা'আ ল্-হুদা। আসলিম তাসলাম।
(হ-দ-য়/ হেদায়াত/পথনির্দেশ; স-ল-ম/ আত্মসমর্পণ করা [আসলিম] -> নিরাপদ থাকা [তাসলাম])।
৩. ফা-ইন তাওয়াল্লাইতা ফা-ইন্না 'আলাইকা ইছমা ল্-আরীসিয়্যীন।
(অ-ছ-ম/ পাপ/দায়ভার; অ-র-স/ আরীসিয়্যীন [কৃষক সম্প্রদায় অথবা আরিয়াসপন্থী একত্ববাদী খ্রিস্টান])।
৪. [এরপর সূরা আল-ইমরান ৩:৬৪ আয়াত উদ্ধৃত করা হয়েছে: ইয়া আহলা ল্-কিতাবি তা'আলাও... "হে কিতাবীগণ! এসো সেই কথায় যা আমাদের ও তোমাদের মধ্যে এক..."]।
Historical Context:
Sent c. 628 CE (post-Hudaibiyah). Heraclius was in Jerusalem celebrating victory over the Persians. Islamic tradition records he interrogated Abu Sufyan regarding the Prophet's character and lineage, acknowledging the signs of prophethood, though he did not convert due to fear of losing his throne or an uprising by his generals.
Document 4: Letter to Khosrow II (Emperor of Persia)
Doc 4:1: The Address
إِلَى كِسْرَى عَظِيمِ فَارِسَ
to Khosrow, Great of Persia (ilā Kisrā ʿaẓīmi Fārisa, ইলা কিসরা 'আজীমি ফারিসা; k-s-r / ক-স-র – [Arabized] Khosrow/Chosroes // Kisrā; f-r-s / ফ-র-স – horse, Persia // Fāris // Cognate: Hebrew: Pāras)
Doc 4:2: The Doctrinal Witness
وَشَهِدَ أَنْ لَا إِلَهَ إِلَّا اللهُ
and bore witness that there is no deity except Allah (wa shahida an lā ilāha illā Allāhu, ওয়া শাহিদা আন্ লা ইলাহা ইল্লা ল্লাহু; sh-h-d / শ-হ-দ – to witness, present // shahida // Cognate: Hebrew: sāhēd "witness" [Aramaic loan])
Doc 4:3: The Universal Mission
لِأُنْذِرَ مَنْ كَانَ حَيًّا
to warn whoever is alive (li-undhira man kāna ḥayyan, লি-উনযিরা মান কানা হাইয়ান; n-dh-r / ন-য-র – to vow, warn // undhira // Cognate: Hebrew: nāzar "consecrate/vow"; ḥ-y-y / হ-য়-য় – life // ḥayya // Cognate: Hebrew: ḥay "alive")
(Reference to Quran 36:70)
Doc 4:4: The Warning to Zoroastrians
فَإِنَّ إِثْمَ الْمَجُوسِ عَلَيْكَ
then indeed the sin of the Magians is upon you. (fa-inna ithma l-majūsi ʿalayka, ফা-ইন্না ইছমা ল্-মাজুসি 'আলাইকা; m-j-s / ম-জ-স – Magians/Zoroastrians // Majūs // Cognate: Old Persian: maguš)
Linguistic Gloss (Letter to Khosrow):
Kisra [Arabized form of Khusraw], Warn [n-dh-r: primarily means to dedicate/vow, evolved to "warn" implying a solemn notification of consequence], Majūs [Quranic term for Zoroastrians, from Old Persian maguš, Greek magos].
বেঙ্গলি স্ক্রিপ্ট (কিসরার প্রতি পত্র):
১. বিসমিল্লাহ... ইলা কিসরা 'আজীমি ফারিসা। সালামুন 'আলা মানি ত্তাবা'আ ল্-হুদা।
(ক-স-র/ কিসরা [সম্রাট]; ফ-র-স/ পারস্য)।
২. ওয়া শাহিদা আন্ লা ইলাহা ইল্লা ল্লাহু... লি-উনযিরা মান কানা হাইয়ান।
(শ-হ-দ/ সাক্ষ্য দেয়া; ন-য-র/ সতর্ক করা; হ-য়-য়/ জীবিত [আধ্যাত্মিক ভাবেজাগ্রত])।
৩. ফা-ইন আবাইতা ফা-ইন্না ইছমা ল্-মাজুসি 'আলাইকা।
(আ-ব-য়/ অস্বীকার করা; ম-জ-স/ মাজুস/অগ্নিপূজক সম্প্রদায়)।
Historical Context:
Khosrow II (Parviz) tore the letter apart in rage. When the Prophet ﷺ heard this, he said, "May Allah tear his kingdom apart." Shortly after, Khosrow was killed by his own son (Kavadh II), and the Sassanid Empire collapsed rapidly, eventually being absorbed by the Islamic Caliphate.
Document 5: Letter to Al-Muqawqis (Ruler of Egypt)
Doc 5:1: The Title
إِلَى الْمُقَوْقِسِ عَظِيمِ الْقِبْطِ
to Al-Muqawqis, Great of the Copts (ilā l-Muqawqisi ʿaẓīmi l-Qibṭi, ইলা ল্-মুক্বাওক্বিসি 'আজীমি ল্-ক্বিবতি; q-b-ṭ / ক-ব-ত – Copt/Egypt // Qibṭ // Cognate: Greek: Aigyptos)
Doc 5:2: The Reward
يُؤْتِكَ اللهُ أَجْرَكَ مَرَّتَيْنِ
Allah will give you your reward twice. (yuʾtika Allāhu ajraka marratayni, য়ু'তিকা ল্লাহু আজরাকা মাররাতাইনি; '-j-r / অ-জ-র – wage, reward // ajr // Cognate: Syriac: agrā; m-r-r / ম-র-র – to pass, time // marrah // [Cognate: none])
Linguistic Gloss:
Muqawqis [Likely a title derived from "Caucas" or the Patriarch "Cyrus"], Copt [Qibṭ: From Greek Aigyptos, referring to the native Christians of Egypt], Twice [marratayn: Refers to the reward for believing in Jesus (AS) previously and now Muhammad ﷺ].
বেঙ্গলি স্ক্রিপ্ট (মুক্বাওক্বিসের প্রতি পত্র):
১. ... ইলা ল্-মুক্বাওক্বিসি 'আজীমি ল্-ক্বিবতি।
(ক-ব-ত/ কিবতী/মিশরীয়)।
২. আসলিম তাসলাম য়ু'তিকা ল্লাহু আজরাকা মাররাতাইনি।
(অ-জ-র/ প্রতিদান; ম-র-র/ দুইবার)।
৩. [এরপর সূরা আল-ইমরান ৩:৬৪ উদ্ধৃত]।
Historical Context:
Al-Muqawqis treated the envoy (Hatib ibn Abi Balta'a) with respect. He did not convert but sent gifts, including two bondswomen (Maria al-Qibtiyya, who became the mother of the Prophet's son Ibrahim, and Sirin), a mule (Duldul), and honey.
Document 6: Letter to The Negus (Al-Najashi, Abyssinia)
Doc 6:1: The Divine Attributes
الْمَلِكُ الْقُدُّوسُ السَّلَامُ
The King, the Holy, the Source of Peace (l-Maliku l-Quddūsu s-Salāmu, ল্-মালিকু ল্-কুদ্দুসু স্স-সালামু; q-d-s / ক-দ-স – holy, pure // Quddūs // Cognate: Hebrew: Qādōsh)
Doc 6:2: Christology
إِنَّ عِيسَى ابْنَ مَرْيَمَ رُوحُ اللهِ وَكَلِمَتُهُ
Indeed Jesus, son of Mary, is the Spirit of Allah and His Word (inna ʿĪsā bna Maryama rūḥu Allāhi wa kalimatuhu, ইন্না 'ঈসা বনা মারইয়ামা রূহু ল্লাহি ওয়া কালিমাতুহু; r-w-ḥ / র-ও-হ – spirit, breath // rūḥ // Cognate: Hebrew: rūaḥ; k-l-m / ক-ল-ম – wound, speech // kalimah // [Cognate: none])
Doc 6:3: The Conception
أَلْقَاهَا إِلَى مَرْيَمَ الْبَتُولِ
which He cast into Mary, the Chaste/Virgin (alqāhā ilā Maryama l-batūli, আলক্বাহা ইলা মারইয়ামা ল্-বাতূলি; b-t-l / ব-ত-ল – to sever, detach [devoted to God] // batūl // Cognate: Hebrew: betūlāh "virgin")
Linguistic Gloss:
Quddūs [Intensive form of holy, "The Most Holy," cf. Hebrew Qadosh], Rūḥ [Spirit/Breath, used to bridge Christian understanding of the immaculate conception without accepting divinity], Batūl [From b-t-l "to cut off/sever," implying one cut off from worldly desire; specifically used for Virgin Mary in Eastern Christianity].
বেঙ্গলি স্ক্রিপ্ট (নাজ্জাশীর প্রতি পত্র):
১. ... আল-মালিকুল কুদ্দুস স-সালামুল মু'মিনুল মুহাইমিন।
(ক-দ-স/ পবিত্র; '-ম-ন/ নিরাপত্তাদাতা; হ-ম-ন/ রক্ষক)।
২. ওয়া আশহাদু আন্না 'ঈসা বনা মারইয়ামা রূহু ল্লাহি ওয়া কালিমাতুহু।
(র-ও-হ/ রূহ/আত্মা; ক-ল-ম/ বাণী)।
৩. আলক্বাহা ইলা মারইয়ামা ল্-বাতূলি ত্ত্ব-তাইয়্যিবা।
(ব-ত-ল/ কুমারী/সংসার-বিরাগী; // cf. হিব্রু 'বেতুলাহ')।
Historical Context:
This Negus (Ashama ibn Abjar) had already sheltered Muslim refugees. Upon receiving this letter, he publicly attested to the Prophet's truth. He is the only ruler for whom the Prophet ﷺ performed Salat al-Gha'ib (funeral prayer in absentia) upon his death.
Document 7: Letter to Al-Mundhir bin Sawa (Bahrain)
Doc 7:1: The Theology
فَإِنَّهُ مَنْ يَنْصَحْ فَإِنَّمَا يَنْصَحُ لِنَفْسِهِ
For whoever advises sincerely, he advises only for himself (fa-innahu man yanṣaḥ fa-innamā yanṣaḥu li-nafsihi, ফা-ইন্নাহু মান ইয়ানসাহ ফা-ইন্নামা ইয়ানসাহু লি-নাফসিহি; n-ṣ-ḥ / ন-স-হ – pure, sincere advice // naṣīḥah // [Cognate: none])
Doc 7:2: Religious Pluralism & Tax
وَمَنْ أَقَامَ عَلَى يَهُودِيَّةٍ أَوْ مَجُوسِيَّةٍ فَعَلَيْهِ الْجِزْيَةُ
And whoever remains on Judaism or Magianism, then upon him is the tribute. (wa man aqāma ʿalā yahūdiyyatin aw majūsiyyatin fa-ʿalayhi l-jizyatu, ওয়া মান আক্বামা 'আলা ইয়াহুদিয়্যাতিন আও মাজুসিয়্যাতিন ফা-'আলাইহি ল্-জিজইয়াতু; j-z-y / জ-য-য় – to satisfy, repay // jizyah // Cognate: Aramaic: gazīth "poll tax")
Linguistic Gloss:
Advise/Sincere [n-ṣ-ḥ: implies purity, like pure honey; nasiha is seeking the best for another], Jizyah [From j-z-y "to repay/compensate," a tax levied on non-Muslim subjects (Dhimmis) in exchange for exemption from military service and state protection].
বেঙ্গলি স্ক্রিপ্ট (মুনজির বিন সাওয়ার প্রতি পত্র):
১. ... ফা-ইন্নাহু মান ইয়ানসাহ ফা-ইন্নামা ইয়ানসাহু লি-নাফসিহি।
(ন-স-হ/ নসীহত/সুপরামর্শ)।
২. ওয়া মান আক্বামা 'আলা ইয়াহুদিয়্যাতিন আও মাজুসিয়্যাতিন ফা-'আলাইহি ল্-জিজইয়াতু।
(জ-য-য়/ জিজিয়া কর; // cf. আরামাইক 'গাজিথ')।
Historical Context:
Al-Mundhir accepted Islam, and the majority of the people of Bahrain (which included modern Eastern Saudi Arabia) converted. This was significant as it integrated a region with a strong Zoroastrian and Christian presence into the Islamic fold peacefully
Documents
Authored by Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him)
These texts are preserved in classical historical sources such as Ibn Hisham’s Sirah, Ibn Sa’d’s Kitab al-Tabaqat al-Kabir, and Abu Yusuf’s Kitab al-Kharaj.
1. The Constitution of Medina (Sahifat al-Madinah)
Source: Ibn Hisham
Preamble:
بِسْمِ اللهِ الرَّحْمَنِ الرَّحِيمِ
هَذَا كِتَابٌ مِنْ مُحَمَّدٍ النَّبِيِّ (رَسُولِ اللهِ) بَيْنَ الْمُؤْمِنِينَ وَالْمُسْلِمِينَ مِنْ قُرَيْشٍ وَأَهْلِ يَثْرِبَ، وَمَنْ تَبِعَهُمْ فَلَحِقَ بِهِمْ وَجَاهَدَ مَعَهُمْ.
إِنَّهُمْ أُمَّةٌ وَاحِدَةٌ مِنْ دُونِ النَّاسِ.
On Mutual Protection (Dhimmah):
وَإِنَّ ذِمَّةَ اللهِ وَاحِدَةٌ، يُجِيرُ عَلَيْهِمْ أَدْنَاهُمْ.
On the Jewish Allies (Banu Awf):
وَإِنَّ يَهُودَ بَنِي عَوْفٍ أُمَّةٌ مَعَ الْمُؤْمِنِينَ، لِلْيَهُودِ دِينُهُمْ وَلِلْمُسْلِمِينَ دِينُهُمْ، مَوَالِيهِمْ وَأَنْفُسُهُمْ.
2. The Treaty of Hudaibiyah (Sulh al-Hudaibiyah)
Source: Sahih al-Bukhari & Sirah Ibn Hisham
The Text:
بِاسْمِكَ اللَّهُمَّ
هَذَا مَا صَالَحَ عَلَيْهِ مُحَمَّدُ بْنُ عَبْدِ اللهِ سُهَيْلَ بْنَ عَمْرٍو.
اصْطَلَحَا عَلَى وَضْعِ الْحَرْبِ عَنِ النَّاسِ عَشْرَ سِنِينَ، يَأْمَنُ فِيهِنَّ النَّاسُ، وَيَكُفُّ بَعْضُهُمْ عَنْ بَعْضٍ.
عَلَى أَنَّهُ مَنْ أَتَى مُحَمَّدًا مِنْ قُرَيْشٍ بِغَيْرِ إِذْنِ وَلِيِّهِ رَدَّهُ عَلَيْهِمْ، وَمَنْ جَاءَ قُرَيْشًا مِمَّنْ مَعَ مُحَمَّدٍ لَمْ يَرُدُّوهُ عَلَيْهِ.
وَإِنَّ بَيْنَنَا عَيْبَةً مَكْفُوفَةً، وَأَنَّهُ لَا إِسْلَالَ وَلَا إِغْلَالَ.
وَأَنَّهُ مَنْ أَحَبَّ أَنْ يَدْخُلَ فِي عَقْدِ مُحَمَّدٍ وَعَهْدِهِ دَخَلَ فِيهِ، وَمَنْ أَحَبَّ أَنْ يَدْخُلَ فِي عَقْدِ قُرَيْشٍ وَعَهْدِهِمْ دَخَلَ فِيهِ.
3. The Covenant with the Christians of Najran
Source: Ibn Sa’d & Abu Yusuf
The Text:
وَلِنَجْرَانَ وَحَاشِيَتِهَا جِوَارُ اللهِ وَذِمَّةُ مُحَمَّدٍ النَّبِيِّ رَسُولِ اللهِ عَلَى أَنْفُسِهِمْ وَمِلَّتِهِمْ وَأَرْضِهِمْ وَأَمْوَالِهِمْ وَغَائِبِهِمْ وَشَاهِدِهِمْ وَعَشِيرَتِهِمْ وَبِيَعِهِمْ وَكُلِّ مَا تَحْتَ أَيْدِيهِمْ مِنْ قَلِيلٍ أَوْ كَثِيرٍ.
لَا يُغَيَّرُ أُسْقُفٌ مِنْ أُسْقُفِيَّتِهِ، وَلَا رَاهِبٌ مِنْ رَهْبَانِيَّتِهِ، وَلَا وَاقِفٌ (واكه) مِنْ وَقْفِيَتِهِ.
وَلَا يُحْشَرُونَ وَلَا يُعْشَرُونَ، وَلَا يَطَأُ أَرْضَهُمْ جَيْشٌ.
وَمَنْ سَأَلَ مِنْهُمْ حَقًّا فَبَيْنَهُمْ النَّصْفُ غَيْرَ ظَالِمِينَ وَلَا مَظْلُومِينَ.
4. The Land Grant to Tamim al-Dari
Source: History of Damascus (Ibn Asakir) & various archives
(Note: This document uses the dialectal verb "Anṭā" (أنطى) instead of "A'ṭā" (أعطى), a recognized feature of the Himyari dialect).
The Text:
بِسْمِ اللهِ الرَّحْمَنِ الرَّحِيمِ
هَذَا مَا أَنْطَى مُحَمَّدٌ رَسُولُ اللهِ لِتَمِيمٍ الدَّارِيِّ وَأَصْحَابِهِ.
إِنِّي أَنْطَيْتُكُمْ بَيْتَ عَيْنُونَ وَحِبْرُونَ وَالْمَرْطُومَ وَبَيْتَ إِبْرَاهِيمَ بِمَنْ فِيهِمْ (وفي رواية: وَبَيْتَ عَيْنُونَ).
وَهَبْتُ ذَلِكَ لَهُمْ وَلِعَقِبِهِمْ مِنْ بَعْدِهِمْ أَبَدَ الْآبِدِينَ.
فَمَنْ آَذَاهُمْ فِيهَا آَذَاهُ اللهُ.
شَهِدَ أَبُو بَكْرِ بْنِ أَبِي قُحَافَةَ وَعُمَرُ وَعُثْمَانُ وَعَلِيٌّ.
5. The Treaty of Maqna (Banu Janba)
Source: Ibn Sa'd, Tabaqat
The Text:
بِسْمِ اللهِ الرَّحْمَنِ الرَّحِيمِ
مِنْ مُحَمَّدٍ رَسُولِ اللهِ إِلَى بَنِي جَنْبَةَ...
أَمَّا بَعْدُ، فَقَدْ نَزَلَ عَلَيَّ رَسُولُكُمْ وَرَجَعَ إِلَى قَرْيَتِكُمْ.
فَإِنَّ لَكُمْ أَمَانَ اللهِ وَأَمَانَ مُحَمَّدٍ.
وَإِنَّ كُلَّ قَادِمَةٍ لَكُمْ وَسَفِينَةٍ لَكُمْ آمِنَةٌ.
وَأَنْتُمْ فِي ذِمَّةِ اللهِ وَذِمَّةِ مُحَمَّدٍ النَّبِيِّ.
إِلَّا مَنْ أَحْدَثَ حَدَثًا أَوْ آوَى مُحْدِثًا فَإِنَّهُ لَا يَحُولُ مَالُهُ دُونَ نَفْسِهِ.
وَأَنَّ لَكُمْ كُرَاعَكُمْ وَحَلْقَتَكُمْ وَرَقِيقَكُمْ، إِلَّا الْبَزَّةَ وَالسِّلَاحَ (وفي نسخ: إلا الربع من رقيقكم)...
Here are the original Arabic transcripts of the major diplomatic letters sent by Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him).
1. Letter to Heraclius (Emperor of Byzantium)
Text:
بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم
من محمد عبد الله ورسوله إلى هرقل عظيم الروم
سلام على من اتبع الهدى
أما بعد، فإني أدعوك بدعاية الإسلام
أسلم تسلم يؤتك الله أجرك مرتين، فإن توليت فإن عليك إثم الأريسيين
و {يَا أَهْلَ الْكِتَابِ تَعَالَوْا إِلَىٰ كَلِمَةٍ سَوَاءٍ بَيْنَنَا وَبَيْنَكُمْ أَلَّا نَعْبُدَ إِلَّا اللَّهَ وَلَا نُشْرِكَ بِهِ شَيْئًا وَلَا يَتَّخِذَ بَعْضُنَا بَعْضًا أَرْبَابًا مِّن دُونِ اللَّهِ ۚ فَإِن تَوَلَّوْا فَقُولُوا اشْهَدُوا بِأَنَّا مُسْلِمُونَ}
2. Letter to Khosrow II (Kisra, Emperor of Persia)
Text:
بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم
من محمد رسول الله إلى كسرى عظيم فارس
سلام على من اتبع الهدى، وآمن بالله ورسوله، وشهد أن لا إله إلا الله وحده لا شريك له، وأن محمداً عبده ورسوله
وأدعوك بدعاية الله، فإني أنا رسول الله إلى الناس كافة، لأنذر من كان حياً ويحق القول على الكافرين
فأسلم تسلم، فإن أبيت فإن إثم المجوس عليك
3. Letter to Al-Muqawqis (Ruler of Egypt)
Text:
بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم
من محمد عبد الله ورسوله إلى المقوقس عظيم القبط
سلام على من اتبع الهدى
أما بعد، فإني أدعوك بدعاية الإسلام
أسلم تسلم يؤتك الله أجرك مرتين
فإن توليت فإن عليك إثم القبط
و {يَا أَهْلَ الْكِتَابِ تَعَالَوْا إِلَىٰ كَلِمَةٍ سَوَاءٍ بَيْنَنَا وَبَيْنَكُمْ أَلَّا نَعْبُدَ إِلَّا اللَّهَ وَلَا نُشْرِكَ بِهِ شَيْئًا وَلَا يَتَّخِذَ بَعْضُنَا بَعْضًا أَرْبَابًا مِّن دُونِ اللَّهِ ۚ فَإِن تَوَلَّوْا فَقُولُوا اشْهَدُوا بِأَنَّا مُسْلِمُونَ}
4. Letter to The Negus (Al-Najashi, King of Abyssinia)
Text:
بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم
من محمد رسول الله إلى النجاشي عظيم الحبشة
سلام على من اتبع الهدى
أما بعد، فإني أحمد إليك الله الذي لا إله إلا هو، الملك القدوس السلام المؤمن المهيمن
وأشهد أن عيسى بن مريم روح الله وكلمته ألقاها إلى مريم البتول الطيبة الحصينة، فحملت بعيسى من روحه ونفخه كما خلق آدم بيده
وإني أدعوك إلى الله وحده لا شريك له، والموالاة على طاعته، وأن تتبعني وتؤمن بالذي جاءني، فإني رسول الله
وإني أدعوك وجنودك إلى الله عز وجل
وقد بلغت ونصحت فاقبلوا نصيحتي
والسلام على من اتبع الهدى
5. Letter to Al-Mundhir bin Sawa (Ruler of Bahrain)
Text:
بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم
من محمد رسول الله إلى المنذر بن ساوى
سلام عليك، فإني أحمد إليك الله الذي لا إله إلا هو
وأشهد أن لا إله إلا الله، وأن محمداً عبده ورسوله
أما بعد، فإني أذكرك الله عز وجل، فإنه من ينصح فإنما ينصح لنفسه، ومن يطع رسلي ويتبع أمرهم فقد أطاعني
ومن نصح لهم فقد نصح لي
وإني قد شفعتهم في قومك، فاترك للمسلمين ما أسلموا عليه
وعفوت عن أهل الذنوب فاقبل منهم
وإنك مهما تصلح فلن نعزلك عن عملك
ومن أقام على يهودية أو مجوسية فعليه الجزية
1. The Constitution of Medina (Sahifat al-Madinah)
Date: 622 CE (1 AH)
Context: Drafted shortly after the Hijrah to formalize the relationship between the Muhajirun (Emigrants), Ansar (Helpers), and the Jewish tribes of Medina. It is considered the first written constitution in Islamic history, establishing a pluralistic state.
Selected Key Excerpts (Preamble & Definition of State):
Translation:
"In the name of God, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful.
This is a writing (Kitab) from Muhammad the Prophet (some recensions add: the Messenger of God) governing the relations between the Believers (Mu’minun) and Muslims of Quraysh and Yathrib (Medina), and those who followed them and joined them and labored with them.
They are one community (Ummah Wahidah) to the exclusion of all [other] people.
The security/protection (Dhimmat) of God is one: the granting of protection by the least of them is binding on all.
The Jews of Banu Awf are a community (Ummah) alongside the Believers. To the Jews their religion (Din) and to the Muslims their religion."
Key Arabic Terminology:
Kitab: (Writing/Document/Decree) - Establishes legal weight.
Ummah Wahidah: (One Single Community) - A political super-tribe replacing blood ties with ideological/civic ties.
Dhimmat Allah: (The Protection/Covenant of God) - The guarantee of security provided by the state/divine law.
Mawla: (Client/Ally) - Used regarding tribal alliances.
2. The Treaty of Hudaibiyah (Sulh al-Hudaibiyah)
Date: 628 CE (6 AH)
Context: A pivotal truce signed between the State of Medina and the Quraish tribe of Mecca. It was a 10-year non-aggression pact that allowed for the peaceful spread of Islam.
Full Text:
Translation:
"In your name, O Allah (Bismik Allahumma).
This is what Muhammad ibn Abdullah has agreed (Salaha) upon with Suhayl ibn Amr.
They have agreed to a truce whereby war is laid aside from the people for ten years, during which the people will be safe (Ya'man) and refrain from [attacking] one another.
Whoever comes to Muhammad from Quraish without the permission of his guardian (Wali), he [Muhammad] will return him to them; and whoever comes to Quraish from those with Muhammad, they need not return him.
Between us is a tied-up breast (i.e., no secret treachery or betrayal). There shall be no secret theft (Islal) and no betrayal (Ighlal).
Whoever wishes to enter the bond (Ahd) and pact (Aqd) of Muhammad may do so; and whoever wishes to enter the bond and pact of Quraish may do so."
Key Arabic Terminology:
Bismik Allahumma: (In Your Name, O Allah) - The pre-Islamic Meccan formula insisted upon by the Quraish negotiator, which Muhammad accepted over "Bismillah ar-Rahman ar-Rahim."
Salaha: (Made peace/Reconciled) - Root of Sulh (Peace treaty).
Islal / Ighlal: (Secret theft / Treachery) - Idioms denoting bad faith or violation of terms.
Ahd / Aqd: (Covenant / Knot or Contract) - Legal binding terms.
3. The Covenant with the Christians of Najran (Kitab Najran)
Date: 631 CE (10 AH)
Context: Granted to a delegation of Christians from Najran (modern-day border of Saudi Arabia and Yemen). It is a defining document for the rights of non-Muslims (Dhimmis) under Islamic rule.
Full Text (Abridged standard version):
Translation:
"For Najran and its surrounding area the protection of God (Jiwar Allah) and the pledge (Dhimmah) of Muhammad, the Prophet, the Messenger of God, extends to their property, their selves, their religious community (Millah), their absent and present, their families, their churches (Biya'), and everything explicitly in their possession, large or small.
No bishop (Usquf) shall be removed from his bishopric, nor any monk (Rahib) from his monasticism, nor any sexton (Wahif) from his office.
They shall not be oppressed, nor shall they oppress.
No blood vengeance from the Days of Ignorance (Jahiliyyah) shall be exacted upon them.
They are not required to serve in the army (Hashr) nor pay the tithe (Ushr)."
Key Arabic Terminology:
Jiwar Allah: (Neighborhood/Refuge of God) - A strong term for divine asylum.
Millah: (Religion/Creed) - A distinct religious community.
Biya': (Churches/Synagogues) - Plural of Bi'ah.
Rahib: (Monk) - Specifically protects the monastic class.
Hashr: (Military conscription/Gathering) - Exemption from military service.
4. The Land Grant to Tamim al-Dari (In Hebron)
Date: ~9 AH (approximate)
Context: A unique document granting land in Hebron (Palestine) to Tamim al-Dari (a Christian convert to Islam) and his descendants before the Muslim conquest of the region. This document is still referenced by the Al-Tamimi family today.
Full Text:
Translation:
"In the name of God, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful.
This is what Muhammad, the Messenger of God, gave (Anta) to Tamim al-Dari and his companions.
He gave them Aynun, Hibrun (Hebron), al-Martum, and Bayt Aynun—their plains and their mountains.
[It is] a palpable extraction (Battah) and a decided decree.
No one shall dispute them in it nor act unjustly toward them.
Whoever suppresses them or takes from them specifically, upon him is the curse (La'nah) of God, the Angels, and all of mankind."
Key Arabic Terminology:
Anta: (He gave) - A verb denoting a royal or official grant.
Hibrun: (Hebron/Al-Khalil) - The specific geographic location.
Battah: (Decisive/Final) - Indicating the grant is irrevocable.
La'nah: (Curse) - A spiritual invocation ensuring the sanctity of the contract.
5. The Treaty of Maqna (With the Jews of Banu Janba)
Date: 9 AH (During the Tabuk expedition)
Context: A grant of security and property rights to the Jewish inhabitants of the coastal town of Maqna (near Eilat/Aqaba).
Selected Key Excerpts:
Translation:
"To the Banu Janba... your safety (Aman) extends to your boats (Safinah) and your traveling parties.
You are under the protection (Dhimmah) of God and the protection of Muhammad.
Except for whoever of you commits a crime/oppression (Zulm), for he is liable only for himself.
To you belong your clothes, your slaves, and your cattle; except for the 'Safiyya' (the Prophet's share of booty, usually 1/4th of war spoils, here waived or specified) ... and a quarter of what your date palms produce."
Key Arabic Terminology:
Aman: (Safety/Security clearance) - Guarantees safe passage.
Safinah: (Ship/Boat) - Highlights the maritime economic nature of Maqna.
Zulm: (Oppression/Wrongdoing) - Clarifies individual liability rather than collective punishment.
Letters
Most letters begin and end with these standard diplomatic phrases:
The Opening: Bismillah ir-Rahman ir-Rahim (In the name of Allah, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful).
The Sender: Min Muhammadin Rasul Allah (From Muhammad, the Messenger of Allah).
The Salutation: Salamun 'ala mani-ttaba'a al-huda (Peace be upon him who follows the guidance).
The Call: Aslim Taslam (Submit [to Islam] and you will be safe).
1. Letter to Heraclius (Caesar of the Byzantine Empire)
Recipient: Heraclius (Hiraql), Emperor of Byzantium (Rome).
Context: Sent to Constantinople/Jerusalem. Heraclius famously interrogated Abu Sufyan about the Prophet after receiving this.
Transcript:
In the name of Allah, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful.
From Muhammad, the Messenger of Allah, to Heraclius, the Great of the Romans. (Ila Hiraql Azim al-Rum)
Peace be upon him who follows the guidance.
To proceed: I invite you with the call of Islam. (Ad'uka bi-di'ayat al-Islam)
Submit (to Islam) and you will be safe; (Aslim Taslam)
Allah will grant you your reward twofold. (Yu'tika Allahu ajraka marratayn)
But if you turn away, then upon you is the sin of the Arisiyin (the peasants/subjects). (Fa-inna 'alayka ithm al-Arisiyyin)
"O People of the Scripture, come to a word that is equitable between us and you — that we will not worship except Allah..." (Quran 3:64)
Key Arabic Keywords:
Azim al-Rum: Great One of the Romans (acknowledging political status).
Ithm al-Arisiyyin: The sin of the peasants (implying the ruler bears the burden for his subjects' misguidance).
2. Letter to Khosrow II (The Sassanid Empire)
Recipient: Khosrow II (Kisra), Emperor of Persia.
Context: Khosrow tore this letter apart. The Prophet later said, "May Allah tear up his kingdom."
Transcript:
In the name of Allah, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful.
From Muhammad, the Messenger of Allah, to Kisra, the Great of Persia. (Ila Kisra Azim al-Faris)
Peace be upon him who follows the guidance, believes in Allah and His Messenger, and testifies that there is no god but Allah alone with no partner, and that Muhammad is His slave and Messenger.
I invite you with the call of Allah, for I am the Messenger of Allah to all of mankind, to warn those who are alive.
Submit (to Islam) and you will be safe. (Aslim Taslam)
But if you refuse, then upon you is the sin of the Magians (Zoroastrians). (Fa-inna 'alayka ithm al-Majoos)
Key Arabic Keywords:
Kisra: The Arabic title for Khosrow.
Ithm al-Majoos: The sin of the Magians (followers of Zoroastrianism).
3. Letter to Al-Muqawqis (Egypt)
Recipient: Jurayj bin Mina (Al-Muqawqis), the Coptic Vicegerent of Egypt.
Context: Muqawqis received the letter respectfully and sent gifts back, including Maria al-Qibtiyya.
Transcript:
In the name of Allah, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful.
From Muhammad, the slave of Allah and His Messenger, to Al-Muqawqis, the Great of the Copts. (Ila al-Muqawqis Azim al-Qibt)
Peace be upon him who follows the guidance.
To proceed: I invite you with the call of Islam.
Submit (to Islam) and you will be safe; Allah will grant you your reward twofold.
But if you turn away, then upon you is the sin of the Copts. (Fa-inna 'alayka ithm al-Qibt)
"O People of the Scripture, come to a word that is equitable between us and you..." (Quran 3:64)
Key Arabic Keywords:
Azim al-Qibt: Great One of the Copts.
Ithm al-Qibt: The sin of the Coptic people.
4. Letter to The Negus (Abyssinia/Ethiopia)
Recipient: Ashama ibn Abjar (An-Najashi).
Context: Unlike the others, this letter focuses heavily on the nature of Jesus ('Isa). The Negus accepted Islam.
Transcript:
In the name of Allah, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful.
From Muhammad, the Messenger of Allah, to An-Najashi, the Great of Abyssinia. (Ila an-Najashi Azim al-Habash)
Peace be upon him who follows the guidance.
To proceed: I praise Allah before you, besides Whom there is no god, the King, the Holy, the Peace, the Faithful, the Preserver.
I testify that Jesus, the son of Mary, is the Spirit of Allah and His Word... (Wa ash-hadu anna 'Isa ibn Maryam ruh Allah wa kalimatuhu)
I invite you to Allah alone with no partner, and to obedience to His command, and to follow me and believe in what has come to me.
I have conveyed the message and advised you; so accept my advice.
Peace be upon him who follows the guidance.
Key Arabic Keywords:
Ruh Allah wa Kalimatuhu: Spirit of Allah and His Word (a specific Quranic description of Jesus designed to bridge the theological gap).
5. Letter to Mundhir bin Sawa (Bahrain)
Recipient: Al-Mundhir bin Sawa Al-Tamimi, Governor of Bahrain.
Context: Mundhir accepted Islam, and the Prophet allowed those who remained Jewish or Magian to pay the Jizya tax.
Transcript:
In the name of Allah, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful.
From Muhammad, the Messenger of Allah, to Al-Mundhir bin Sawa.
Peace be upon you. I praise Allah before you, besides Whom there is no god.
To proceed: Whoever prays our prayer, faces our Qibla, and eats our slaughtered animals, that is the Muslim. (Man salla salatana wastqbala qiblatana...)
So whoever prefers his own religion (Judaism or Zoroastrianism), then upon him is the Jizya. (Fa 'alayhi al-Jizya)
Key Arabic Keywords:
Fa 'alayhi al-Jizya: Upon him is the tax/tribute (establishing the political status of non-Muslim subjects).
6. Letter to Jayfar and Abd (Oman)
Recipient: The two brothers Jayfar and Abd, sons of Al-Julanda (Rulers of Oman).
Context: Both brothers accepted Islam after questioning the envoy, Amr ibn al-Aas.
Transcript:
In the name of Allah, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful.
From Muhammad, the Messenger of Allah, to Jayfar and Abd, sons of Al-Julanda.
Peace be upon him who follows the guidance.
To proceed: I invite you both with the call of Islam.
Submit and you will be safe. (Aslima Taslama)
I am the Messenger of Allah to all people...
If you acknowledge Islam, I will appoint you as rulers. But if you refuse to accept Islam, then your kingdom will vanish from you, and my horses will trample your courtyard. (Khayli tahullu bi-sahatikum)
Key Arabic Keywords:
Mulkukuma: Your (dual) kingdom.
Za'il: Vanishing/Fleeting (warned that their power would disappear if they refused).
7. Letter to Haudhah bin Ali (Yamama)
Recipient: Haudhah bin Ali, Governor of Yamama.
Context: He replied arrogantly, asking for a share in the prophethood/rule. He died shortly after.
Transcript:
In the name of Allah, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful.
From Muhammad, the Messenger of Allah, to Haudhah bin Ali.
Peace be upon him who follows the guidance.
Be informed that my religion will prevail to the furthest limits of the camels and horses. (Sayaghara dini ila muntaha al-khuff wa al-hafir)
Submit (to Islam) and you will be safe, and I will leave under your hand what you possess. (Aj'al laka ma tahta yadayk)
Key Arabic Keywords:
Muntaha al-khuff wa al-hafir: Literally "to where the camel's pad and horse's hoof reach" (idiom for "everywhere").